Computer fundamentals architecture and organization by b ram free download

Before mechani cal cal cul ators were bui l t for automati c addi ti on, subtracti on, mul ti pl i cati on and di vi si on. A cal cul ator i s not a programmabl e devi ce. Cal cul ati ons are performed usi ng step-by-step techni que. The user does not prepare program for hi s cal cul ati on.

A computer i s a programmabl e machi ne. A program i s to be prepared to sol ve a probl em. Hi s machi ne di d not become popul ar.

A popul ar mechani cal cal cul ator was devel oped i n by the great French phi l osopher and sci enti st Bl ai se Pascal. Hi s machi ne was capabl e of performi ng addi ti on and subtracti on automati cal l y. For thi s the machi ne empl oyed counter wheel s.

There were two sets of si x di al s or counter wheel s to represent deci mal numbers. The cal cul ator contai ned a mechani sm for automati c transfer of carry whi l e performi ng the sum of two numbers. The numbers were represented by the posi ti ons of the counter wheel s. Around Pascal s machi ne was extended to perform mul ti pl i cati on and di vi si on automati cal l y by German phi l osopher and sci enti st Gottfri ed Lei bni z.

Thi s machi ne consi sted of two parts: one part to perform addi ti on and subtracti on and the other part to perform mul ti pl i cati on and di vi si on.

The part whi ch performed addi ti on and subtracti on was si mi l ar to the cal cul ati ng box of Pascal. I t further i ncl uded two addi ti onal sets of wheel s to represent mul ti pl i er and mul ti pl i cand. Chai ns and pul l eys were used to i mpl ement mul ti pl i cati on.

I n , Charl es Babbage tri ed to bui l d a mechani cal computi ng machi ne capabl e of performi ng automati c mul ti step cal cul ati ons. He named hi s machi ne a di fference engi ne. Thi s was desi gned to compute tabl es of functi ons such as l ogari thms and tri gonometri c functi ons. A pol ynomi al was used to represent a functi on. The method of fi ni te di fferences was used to eval uate a functi on.

He coul d not compl ete the machi ne. Swede George Scheutz successful l y bui l t a di fference engi ne whi ch coul d handl e thi rd-degree pol ynomi al s and di gi t numbers. I n s Charl es Babbage concei ved of a much more powerful mechani cal computer.

He cal l ed thi s machi ne an anal yti cal engi ne. Thi s machi ne was desi gned to per for m any mathemati cal cal cul ati on automati cal l y. I t contai ned al l the essenti al components of a modern di gi tal computer, namel y: i A processor capabl e of performi ng addi ti on, subtracti on, mul ti pl i cati on and di vi si on.

I t was constructed from deci mal counti ng wheel s. I ts capaci ty was numbers, each number consi sti ng of 50 di gi ts. The anal yti cal machi ne was a programmabl e machi ne. I t had a mechani sm for enabl i ng a program to change the sequence of i ts operati ons automati cal l y.

I n other words there were condi ti onal branches of i nstructi ons i n the program. The condi ti on was based on the si gn of a number. One sequence of operati ons was to be performed i f the si gn were posi ti ve, and another one, i f negati ve. Babbages anal yti cal machi ne was al so not compl eted. I n the l ate ni neteenth century punched cards were commerci al l y used. Herman Hol l eri th was the i nventor of punched-card tabul ati ng machi ne.

The major appl i cati on of hi s machi ne came about i n the Uni ted States Census. I n he formed the Tabul ati ng Machi ne Company to manufacture hi s machi nes. I n hi s company was merged wi th several others to form the Computi ng-Tabul ati ng Recordi ng Company. Successful general purpose mechani cal computers were bui l t i n s. Konard Zuse devel oped a mechani cal computer, the Z1, i n i n Germany.

The Z1 used bi nary number system i nstead of deci mal system. Konard was unaware of Babbages work. He bui l t several smal l mechani cal computers. The Z3 was compl eted i n I t i s bel i eved to be the fi rst operati onal general purpose computer. The Z3 empl oyed rel ays el ectromechani cal bi nary swi tches to construct ari thmeti c uni t.

The machi ne used fl oati ng-poi nt number representati on. Howard Ai ken, a professor of Physi cs at Harvard Uni versi ty, desi gned a general purpose mechani cal di gi tal computer. I t was constructed i n cooperati on wi th I BM, a l eadi ng manufacturer of offi ce equi pment at that ti me.

Ai ken was aware of Babbages work. He used deci mal counters wheel s for i ts mai n memory. I ts memory capaci ty was seventy two di gi t deci mal numbers. Punched paper tape was used to program and control the machi ne. Mark I started worki ng i n Later, Mark I I was built by Ai ken and hi s col l eagues. Mark I I empl oyed el ectromechani cal rel ays for i ts operati on.

Many computers usi ng el ectromechani cal rel ays were bui l t i n the s. But they were qui ckl y superseded by faster and more rel i abl e el ectroni c computers. Atanasoff i n the l ate s at I owa State Uni versi ty. I t contai ned an add-subtract uni t. I t was rel ati vel y a smal l computer and used about val ves. I ts memory uni t consi sted of capaci tors mounted on a rotati ng drum.

I t used bi nary numbers for i ts operati on. Each capaci tor was capabl e of stori ng one bi nary di gi t. I t was compl eted i n I t was a speci al purpose computer to sol ve si mul taneous equati ons.

Several other el ectroni c computers usi ng val ves were successful l y constructed i n the earl y s. Some i mportant computers were the seri es of computers cal l ed Col ossus devel oped i n Engl and. I t was devel oped at the Uni versi ty of Pennsyl vani a under the gui dance of John W. Mauchl y and J. Presper Eckert. I t was a very l arge machi ne wei ghi ng about 30 tons and contai ni ng about vacuum tubes. I t took mi croseconds for addi ti on and 3 mi l l i seconds 1.

I t used deci mal numbers for i ts operati on rather than bi nary numbers. I ts worki ng memory was composed of 20 el ectroni c accumul ators. Each accumul ator was capabl e of stori ng a si gned di gi t deci mal number. A deci mal di gi t was stored i n a ri ng counter consi sti ng of 10 vacuum-tube fl i p-fl ops connected i n a cl osed l oop. I ntroduci ng a new program or modi fyi ng a program was an extremel y tedi ous job wi th separate memori es for program and data.

The ENI AC desi gners, most notabl y John von Neumann, gave an i dea to use a hi gh- speed memory to store both program as wel l as data duri ng program executi on.

Thi s machi ne started operati on i n I t used bi nary rather than deci mal numbers for i ts operati on. I t used seri al bi nary-l ogi c ci rcui ts. I t used a l arger mai n memory mercury-del ay l i ne 1 K words and a sl ow secondary memory magneti c wi re memory 20 K words where K stands for Ki l o whi ch i s equal to to be exact.

Access to the mai n memory was bi t by bi t, i. Neumann and hi s col l eagues desi gned and bui l t a new computer cal l ed I AS I nsti tute of Advanced Studi es at the I nsti tute for Advanced Studi es i n Pri nceton duri ng Thi s machi ne had the features of a modern computer. I t used random access mai n memory consi sti ng of cathode-ray-tube. An enti re word coul d be accessed i n one operati on. I t used paral l el bi nary ci rcui ts.

The CPU contai ned several hi gh-speed vacuum tube regi sters to store operands and resul ts. Thi s computer served as the prototype for most subsequent general purpose computers. The basi c l ogi cal structure proposed by Neumann i s sti l l used i n a standard computer. The term Neumann Computer became synonymous wi th standard computer archi tecture. I n future the archi tecture may change; i nstead of a central i zed processi ng, di stri buted processi ng may be used wi th correspondi ng other changes i n the desi gn and archi tecture.

I n the s the engi neers started usi ng transi stors i n pl ace of vacuum tubes to construct computers. One of the earl i est computers usi ng transi stors was TX-O.

I t was an experi mental computer bui l t at the Massachusetts I nsti tute of Technol ogys Li ncol n Laboratori es. I t started operati on i n Commerci al computers usi ng transi stors were constructed i n the l ate s and earl y s by many compani es. For exampl e, I BM i ntroduced a l arge computer, the , for sci enti fi c appl i cati ons. I t was a transi stori zed versi on of the I BM , a vacuum-tube computer. The transi stori zed computers used transi stors as the components of CPU.

These computers used ferri te core mai n memory and magneti c di sk, drum and tapes as secondary memory. Ferri te core memori es consi st of ti ny ri ngs cores of magneti c materi al cal l ed ferri te.

Each ferri te core stores a si ngl e bi t of i nformati on. Transi stori zed computers were faster and compact, and consumed much l ess power compared to vacuum tube computers. Ki l by at Texas I nstruments, and by Robert S. Noyce at Fai rchi l d i ndependentl y.

The fi rst commerci al I C was i ntroduced i n by Fai rchi l d. I Cs began to repl ace transi stor ci rcui ts si nce The fi rst mi croprocessor, the was i ntroduced i n by I ntel Corporati on. The fi rst si ngl e-chi p mi crocomputer TMS , a 4-bi t mi crocontrol l er, was devel oped by Texas I nstruments i n the year An 8-bi t mi crocontrol l er, the was i ntroduced i n by I ntel.

Computer Generations First Generation The di gi tal computers usi ng el ectroni c val ves vacuum tubes are known as fi rst-generati on computers. The fi rst- generati on computers usual l y used vacuum tubes as CPU components. The hi gh cost of vacuum tubes prevented thei r use for mai n memory. So l ess costl y but sl ower devi ces such as acousti c del ay l i nes wer e used for memor y.

They stor ed i nfor mati on i n the for m of propagati ng sound waves. El ectrostati c memori es have al so been used i n the fi rst generati on computers.

Magneti c tape and magneti c drums were used as secondary memory. A fi rst generati on computer, Whi rl wi nd I , constructed at MI T was the fi rst computer to use ferri te core memory. The fi rst generati on computers used machi ne l anguage and assembl y l anguage for programmi ng. They used fi xed-poi nt ari thmeti c.

Punched cards and paper tapes were devel oped to feed programs and data and to get resul ts. Punched card and paper tape readers and pri nters were i n use. Second Generation The second-generati on computers used transi stors for CPU components and ferri te cores for mai n memory, and magneti c di sks and tapes for secondary memory. Fl oati ng-poi nt ar i thmeti c har dwar e was wi del y used. I t r el i eved CPU fr om many ti me-consumi ng r outi ne tasks.

PDP 8 was a bi t mi ni computer. I ts ear l i er uni ts used tr ansi stor s; I C ver si on was i ntr oduced i n Third Generation I n the begi nni ng thi rd generati on computers used magneti c core memory, but l ater on semi conductor memori es RAMs and ROMs were used.

Semi conductor memori es were LSI chi ps. Magneti c di sks, and tapes were used as secondary memori es. Cache memory was al so i ncorporated i n the computers of thi rd generati on. Mi croprogrammi ng, paral l el processi ng pi pel i ni ng, mul ti processor system, etc.

The concept of vi rtual memory was al so i ntroduced. Fourth Generation I n the fourth-generati on computers mi croprocessors were used as CPU. The el ectroni c ci rcui try of up to 1.

Now mi croprocessor chi ps contai ned al l such uni ts besi des CPU on a si ngl e chi p. They were packed i n a si ngl e I C. Mul ti functi onal peri pheral chi ps were avai l abl e. They contai ned i nterrupt control l er, DMA control l er, ti mer-counters, bus control l er etc. These are essenti al components requi red for a computer.

Computer of thi s generati on were very fast. They performed i nternal operati ons i n mi croseconds. Mai n memory used fast semi conductor chi ps up to 4 Mbi ts si ze. Hard di sks were used as secondary memory. Hard di sk dri ves of hundreds of megabytes were avai l abl e. Fl oppy di sks and magneti c tapes were used as backup memory.

Keyboard, CRT di spl ay moni tor , dot- matri x pri nters etc. I nkjet, l aser and l i ne pri nters, were devel oped duri ng thi s peri od. PCs Personal Computers were avai l abl e. Such computers can be easi l y pl aced on a desk and hence, they were al so known as desk computers. They were si ngl e-user computer s. Dur i ng thi s per i od computer s wer e wi thi n the r each of smal l or gani zati on, i nsti tuti ons, professi onal s and i ndi vi dual s.

The desktop computers were more powerful than the mai nframe computers of s. Computers became very powerful and smal l i n si ze. Si ngl e- chi p mi crocomputers mi crocontrol l ers were avai l abl e. They were wi del y used i n i ndustri al control , i nstrumentati on, commerci al appl i ances etc. Software packages for word processi ng, spread-sheet, database management etc.

Fifth-Generation Continued. I ntel s Penti um 4 Prescott contai ns mi l l i on transi stors and I tani um 2 processor contai ns more than mi l l i on transi stors. Data fl ow and EPI C archi tectures of processors have been devel oped. Von Neumann archi tecture are sti l l used i n l ess powerful CPUs. Nowadays mul ti medi a computers are becomi ng common. They can handl e ani mati on. Computers usi ng arti fi cal i ntel l i gence expert systems are now avai l abl e.

Robots have been devel oped. They can work i n envi ronment where human bei ngs can not do. Powerful handhel d and notebook computers are now avai l abl e. Fi fth-generati on computers use extensi ve paral l el processi ng, mul ti pl e pi pel i nes, mul ti pl e processors etc. Memory chi ps and fl ash memory up to 1Gbi ts, hard di sk dri ves up to Gbytes and opti cal di sks up to 50 GB have been devel oped.

I nkjet and l aser pri nters are commonl y used. I n some appl i cati ons dot-matri x pri nters are sti l l used. Computers wi th vi si on have been devel oped. I nternet i s becomi ng popul ar and peopl e are getti ng al l ki nds of i nformati on from di stant pl aces usi ng I nternet. Vi deo conferenci ng i s al so i n use. Object-ori ented l anguage Java for I nternet programmi ng i s wi del y used. Heterogeneous computers are connected to I nternet.

Programs wri tten i n Java for one computer can run on any other computer. I t means that Java i s qui te sui tabl e for I nternet programmi ng for heterogeneous computers. I nternal processi ng ti me i s now i n nanoseconds. Super scal ar pr ocessor s, vector pr ocessor s, DSP Di gi tal Si gnal Pr ocessor , symbol i c processors, SI MD Si ngl e I nstructi on Mul ti pl e Data processors, mul ti core processors, expert systems empl oyi ng arti fi ci al i ntel l i gence, etc.

The i nput and output devi ces are al so known as peri pheral s. I ts pri mary functi on i s to execute programs. Besi des executi ng programs, the CPU al so control s the operati on of al l other components such as memory, i nput and output devi ces. Under i ts control , programs and data are stored i n the memory and di spl ayed on the CRT screen or pri nted by the pri nter. The CPU of a smal l computer i s a mi croprocessor.

The CPU of a l arge computer contai ns a number of mi croprocessors and other I Cs on one or more ci rcui t boards. Each mi croprocessor i n a l arge CPU performs a speci fi c task.

I t al so performs i ncrement, decrement, shi ft and cl ear operati ons. I t control s the enti re operati on of a computer. I t i s actual l y the control secti on of the CPU, whi ch acts as the brai n of a computer. I t i s the most frequentl y used regi ster. Some CPUs contai n a si ngl e accumul ator, and some contai n several accumul ators. General purpose regi sters store data and i ntermedi ate resul ts duri ng the executi on of a program. They are accessi bl e to programmers through i nstructi ons i f they are worki ng i n an assembl y l anguage.

Speci al purpose regi sters are not accessi bl e to users. They are used by the computer for di fferent purposes duri ng program executi on. Exampl es of speci al purpose regi sters are: program counter, stack poi nter, i ndex regi sters, i nstructi on regi ster, etc.

I t stores program, data, resul ts or any other ki nd of i nformati on. Two or three l evel s of memori es such as mai n memory, secondary memory and cache memory are provi ded i n a di gi tal computer. The main memory or pri mary memory i s a fast memory. I t al so stores necessary programs of the system software, whi ch are requi red to execute the users program.

The mai n memory i s di rectl y addressed by the CPU. Semi conductor memori es, RAMs are used as mai n memory. I t possesses random access property, and has smal l er access ti me, about 50 ns nanosecond. Secondary or auxiliary memory stores operati ng system, data fi l es, compi l ers, assembl ers, appl i cati on programs, etc. The CPU does not read i nformati on resi di ng i n the secondary memory di rectl y from the secondary memory.

The programs and data resi di ng i n secondary memory , i f needed by CPU, are fi rst transferred from the secondary memory to the pri mary memory. Then the CPU reads them from the pr i mar y memor y. The r esul ts ar e al so stor ed i n the secondar y memor y. The secondar y memory i s a mass storage memory. I t i s a permanent memory whi l e the mai n memory RAM i s vol ati l e memory. The capaci ty of the mai n memory i s comparati vel y much smal l er than that of the secondary because of i ts hi gh cost.

Hard di sks are used as secondary memory. Thei r access ti me i s about ms mi l l i second. The cache memory i s pl aced i n between the CPU and the mai n memory. I t i s much faster than the mai n memory; access ti me about 10 ns. I t stores i nstructi ons and data whi ch are to be i mmedi atel y executed. I t i s much costl i er than the mai n memory.

Hence, from cost consi derati on i ts capaci ty i s kept much l ess than that of the mai n memory. Destructive and Nondestructive Readout I n some memori es the process of readi ng the memory destroys the stored i nformati on.

Thi s property i s cal l ed destructive readout DRO. I n some memori es the process of readi ng i nformati on does not destroy the stored i nformati on. Thi s characteri sti c of the memory i s cal l ed nondestructive read-out NDRO. Real or Physical and Virtual Memory The real or physi cal memory i s the actual mai n memory avai l abl e i n a computer system.

I t i s di rectl y addressed by the CPU. The techni que whi ch al l ows a program to use mai n memory more than a computer real l y has i s cal l ed virtual memory technique. For exampl e, the mi croprocessor can have the maxi mum physi cal memory capaci ty 4 gi gabytes GB but i ts vi rtual memory capaci ty i s much l arger, 64 terabytes TB [see detai l s i n Chapter 6].

I t may be desi red to access a si ngl e record, update i t and put i t back i n i ts ori gi nal pl ace. Thi s type of data pr ocessi ng i s cal l ed di r ect pr ocessi ng or r andom pr ocessi ng. I t needs l ocati ng, retri evi ng and updati ng any record stored i n a fi l e wi thout readi ng the precedi ng or succeedi ng records i n the fi l e. These requi rements can be ful fi l l ed wi th di rect access storage devi ces DASD equi pment. DASD i ncl udes hard di sks, fl oppy di sks and several forms of opti cal di sks.

Memory devi ces whi ch al ways remai n connected to a computer system are cal l ed on-l i ne devi ces. Hard di sks are on-l i ne secondary memory. The devi ces that can be connected to the system when needed are known as off-l i ne memory. Magneti c tape i s an exampl e of off-l i ne memor y. The physi cal si ze of the mai n memory i s usual l y not l arge enough to accommodate the operati ng system and al l of the appl i cati on programs whi ch are needed to execute the programs of vari ous users.

I n a mul ti user system users shoul d not i nterfere wi th one another, and al so they shoul d not i nterfere wi th the operati ng system. Thi s i s achi eved by provi di ng sui tabl e memory management scheme. Memory management can be provi ded total l y by the operati ng system or wi th the hel p of hardware cal l ed MMU memory management uni t.

I n a uni programmi ng system, the mai n memory i s parti ti oned i nto two porti ons: one porti on for the operati ng system and the other porti on for the program currentl y bei ng executed. I n a mul ti programmi ng system the users porti on of the memory must be further subdi vi ded to accommodate mul ti pl e tasks.

The task of subdi vi si on i s done dynami cal l y by the memory management scheme. Modern MMUs provi de vi rtual memory to handl e l arge program or a l arge number of programs. Thi s i s achi eved by usi ng swappi ng techni que. Memory Devices. There are three types of memori es from technol ogy poi nt of vi ew: semi conductor, magneti c and opti cal memory. Semi conductor memory i s stati c, faster, l i ghter, smal l er i n si ze and consumes l ess power.

I t i s used as mai n memory of a computer. Magneti c memory i s sl ower but cheaper than semi conductor memory. I t i s used as secondary and back up memory of a computer for mass storage of i nformati on.

Opti cal di sks and tapes are used as mass storage and back up memor y. I nformati on can be wri tten i nto and read from a RAM.

I t stores i nformati on so l ong as power suppl y i s on. When power suppl y goes off or i nterrupted the stored i nformati on i n the RAM i s l ost. ROM i s a permanent type memory. I ts contents are not l ost when power suppl y goes off.

The user cannot wri te i nto a ROM. I ts contents are deci ded by the manufacturer and wri tten at the ti me of manufacture. RAMs up to 1 Gbi ts capaci ty are avai l abl e. ROMs store permanent programs and other types of i nformati on whi ch are needed by the computer to execute users programs. Programmabl e ROMs are al so avai l abl e. They are cal l ed PROMs. User can wri te permanent i nformati on i n PROMs.

Such i nformati on i s requi red whi l e executi ng users programs. Fl ash memory whi ch i s el ectri cal l y erasabl e and programmabl e, i s avai l abl e.

Magnetic Memory Magneti c memori es are nonvol ati l e memory. They store i nformati on permanentl y. They are sl ower than semi conductor memory. The commonl y used magneti c memori es are of three types: hard di sks, fl oppy di sks and tapes. These devi ces are bul k storage devi ces. They are used to store i nformati on at a l ower cost compared to semi conductor devi ces. These are not stati c devi ces. They are rotated whi l e readi ng or wri ti ng i nformati on.

These are thi n ci rcul ar pl asti c di sks coated wi th magneti c materi al i ron oxi de or bari um ferri te on the surface. They are used as backup memory. The capaci ty of a 3. The use of fl oppy di sks i s di mi ni shi ng day by day. Now peopl e prefer to use opti cal di sks. Fl oppy di sks are cheaper than opti cal di sks. Hard Disks. Hard di sks are made of al umi ni um or other metal or metal al l oy whi ch are coated on both si des wi th magneti c materi al usual l y i ron oxi de.

Unl i ke fl oppy di sks, hard di sks are not removabl e from the computer. To i ncrease the stori ng capaci ty several di sks are packed together and mounted on a common dri ve to form a disk pack. A di sk i s al so cal l ed platter. The di sks uni t packed i n a seal ed contai ner i s cal l ed Winchester di sk dri ve.

As the seal ed contai ners are dust-free, they al l ow very hi gh speed, usual l y rpm- 15, rpm. A hard di sk i s more stabl e as i t i s ri gi d and contai ned i n dust-free envi ronment.

I ts track and bi t densi ti es are much hi gher than those of fl oppy di sks. A hard di sk may have more than 10, tracks per surface and bi t densi ty 15, bi ts per i nch of a track. The data transfer rate i s The average access ti me i s about ms.

Hard di sks come i n 2. The stori ng capaci ty per di sk i s upto GB. The capaci ty of hard di sk dri ve uni t i s upto GB. A hard di sk uni t contai ns more than one pl atter.

Hard di sk control l ers are used to i nterface hard di sks to a processor. An exampl e of hard di sk control l er i s I ntel I t i s costl i er than I DE control l er.

But peopl e cal l them control l ers. Magnetic Tape. Magneti c tape i s a mass storage devi ce. I t i s used as back up storage. I t i s seri al access type storage devi ce. I ts mai n di sadvantage i s that i t stores i nformati on sequenti al l y.

I t i s made up of pl asti c materi al. Earl i er, tapes used 9 tracks to store a byte wi th pari ty bi t. Today tapes use 18 or 36 tracks to store a word or doubl e word wi th pari ty bi ts.

Newer tape i s packed i n cassette form whi ch i s cal l ed cartri dge tape. The stori ng capaci ty i s 2 GB GB of compressed data. The data densi ty of track tape i s about 40, characters per i nch.

Optical Memory. I nformati on i s wri tten to or read from an opti cal di sk or tape usi ng l aser beam. Opti cal memory i s used as archi val and backup memory. Opti cal di sks are not sui tabl e for secondary memory because thei r access ti me i s more than that of hard di sks.

Thei r advantage i s that they have very hi gh storage capaci ty. I t i s a read-onl y type memory. Thei r access ti me i s 80 ms. A typi cal val ue of track densi ty i s tracks per i nch. An i nput devi ce conver ts i nput i nfor mati on i nto sui tabl e bi nar y for m acceptabl e to a computer. The commonl y used i nput devi ce i s a keyboar d.

Sever al i nput devi ces whi ch do not r equi r e typi ng of i nput i nfor mati on have been devel oped, for exampl e, mouse, joysti ck, l i ght pen, gr aphi c tabl et, touch scr een and tr ackbal l s.

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Did we miss something in B. Come on! Instruction Types. Programming Examples. Assembly Language Programming. A Simple Machine. Instructions… Expand. View via Publisher. Save to Library Save. Create Alert Alert. Share This Paper. Background Citations. Methods Citations. Figures, Tables, and Topics from this paper. Citation Type. Has PDF. Publication Type. More Filters. We have been teaching undergraduate computer architecture since in an unconventional way.

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